M 


\  V 


;-^ 


The  Chilean  Educational  Sys- 
tem, with  Especial  Refer- 
ence to  the  Position  of  the 
University 


By  ,, 
CHARLES  Ef  CHAPMAN 


Reprinted  from  The  Hispanic  American  Historical  Review, 
Vol.  Ill,  No.  3,  August,  1920 


FRQBERy/AtlON 
COPY  ADDED 
ORtOWALTOBE 
nCTMNCO 

APR  0  1  1993 


Bancroft  Library 

University  of  CaJiforrii 

WITHDRAWN 


Reprinted  from  The  Hispanic  Ambbican  Histobical  Review,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  3,  August,  1920 


THE  CHILEAN  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM,  WITH  ESPECIAL 

REFERENCE  TO  THE  POSITION  OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

Chilean  writers  look  upon  the  year  1813  as  that  which  marked  the 
beginning  of  their  educational  system.  It  was  then  that  the  revolu- 
tionary government,  though  at  that  very  time  in  the  thick  of  the  War 
of  Independence  against  Spain,  saw  fit  to  found  the  Instituto  Nacional 
(National  Institute) .  To  be  sure,  something  had  existed  in  the  colonial 
period,  but,  except  for  the  old  University  of  San  Felipe,  scarcely  any- 
thing worthy  of  mention.  As  a  result  of  the  disasters  to  the  patriot 
cause  in  the  year  1814  the  Instituto  Nacional  was  closed,  but  reopened 
in  1819,  since  which  time  it  has  had  a  continuous  existence. 

In  name  the  University  of  San  Felipe  lived  on,  for  a  few  years,  but 
the  Instituto  Nacional  now  monopolized  higher  education,  serving  both 
as  a  liceo  (high  school)  and  university  in  one.  In  1839  the  University 
of  San  Felipe  was  formally  closed.  In  1842  the  University  of  Chile 
was  founded,  and  in  1843  began  to  function.  Henceforth  the  Instituto 
Nacional  remained  as  a  liceo  only,  and  today  is  but  one  out  of  niln^ty. 
Its  fame,  however,  is  quite  on  a  par  with  that  of  the  University,  not 
only  because  it  was  itself  the  university  in  earlier  years,  but  also  be- 
cause by  far  the  greater  number  of  the  most  distinguished  men  in  the 
history  of  Chile  have  received  their  education  within  its  walls. 

Since  the  University  was  founded,  there  have  been  twelve  Rectors, 
or  Presidents.  Among  the  earlier  Rectors  the  names  of  Andres  Bello 
and  Barros  Arana,  respectively  first  and  seventh,  strike  the  attention 
of  one  who  is  looking  over  the  list.  Bello,  though  a  native  of  Vene- 
zuela, belongs  to  Chile  as  a  literary  figure.  His  is  perhaps  the  greatest 
name  in  the  history  of  Chilean  literature.  Barros  Arana  is  remem- 
bered primarily  as  one  of  the  greatest  historians  that  Chile  has  pro- 
duced. Worthy  compatriots  of  these  men  are  the  two  latest  of  the 
"twelve  Apostles",  Valentin  Letelier  and  Domingo  Amundtegui, 
respectively  eleventh  and  twelfth  of  the  Rectors  of  the  University. 
Letelier  was  a  profound  scholar,  author  of  learned  works  on  education, 

395 

C3 


396  THE   HISPANIC   AMERICAN  HISTORICAL  REVIEW 

historical  method,  and  law.  Amundtegui  has  been  Rector  of  the 
University  since  1911.  A  member  of  a  family  which  has  been  unusu- 
ally distinguished  in  the  history  of  Chilean  education  and  historiog- 
raphy, he  has  won  renown  in  his  own  right  which  will  inevitably  entitle 
him  to  rank  among  the  leading  men  of  letters  of  Chile.  As  admin- 
istrator, teacher,  and  historical  scholar  he  would  stand  among  the 
foremost  in  any  country  of  the  world.  Withal  he  is  possessed  of  such 
a  fund  of  amiability  as  to  win  the  unaffected  devotion  and  friendship 
of  all  who  are  privileged  to  know  him.^ 

Four  facts  about  present-day  education  in  Chile  impress  themselves 
upon  the  investigator:  the  honored  position  of  the  "professor",  includ- 
ing in  that  title  all  teachers,  from  the  university  to  the  primary  school ; 
the  position  and  power  of  the  University  of  Chile ;  the  Germanic  char- 
acter of  the  system  as  a  whole  and  of  the  methods  of  instruction ;  and 
the  enthusiastic  progress  that  is  being  made. 

In  Chile  the  "professor"  is  a  person  of  distinction  and  influence, 
especially  the  favored  group  of  those  who  obtain  posts  in  Santiago. 
It  is  no  uncommon  thing  for,  let  us  say,  a  normal-school  teacher  to 
hobnob  with  ministers  of  state  or  even  the  President  of  the  country 
himself.  This  is  a  pleasing  surprise  to  the  American  professor  who 
sees  it  for  the  first  time.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Chileans  get  more 
glory  than  pay.  Very  few  of  the  university  professors,  for  example, 
are  able  to  make  a  living  out  of  their  profession ;  they  find  it  necessary 
to  do  something  in  addition,  such  as  practice  law  or  medicine  or  teach 
in  secondary  schools.  Poorly  as  American  teachers  are  paid,  they 
nevertheless  are  in  this  particular  in  a  better  position  than  their  breth- 
ren in  Chile. 

Unlike  our  own  system  of  local  responsibility  for  education,  that  of 
Chile  is  wholly  under  the  control  of  the  national  government;  even  a 
primary  school  in  an  obscure  village  responds  to  orders,  not  from  some 
local  board,  but  from  the  ministry  of  education  in  Santiago.  At  the 
head  of  the  system — one  is  half  inclined  to  say  nominally  at  the  head — 
stands  the  Minister  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction.  Chilean  minis- 
tries rise  and  fall  with  such  startling  rapidity,  in  obedience  to  the 
parUamentary  type  of  government  which  obtains  in  the  country,  that 
it  is  almost  impossible  for  a  cabinet  member  to  become  thoroughly 

^  This  article  in  its  preliminary  form  had  the  advantage  of  the  constructive 
criticism  of  Senor  Amundtegui,  and  such  value  as  it  may  have  is  due  primarily 
to  him.  It  is  needless  to  add  that  the  above  comments  on  Senor  Amundtegui 
himself  did  not  appear  in  the  draft  that  he  saw. 


NOTES  AND   COMMENT  397 

acquainted,  even,  with  his  own  department.  This  has  caused  foreign 
students  to  believe,  mistakenly,  that  this  country  is  in  a  state  of  per- 
petual administrative  chaos.  The  truth  is  that  government  goes  on  in 
spite  of  changing  ministries,  because  the  employes  of  lesser  rank  than 
the  minister  are  appointed  for  life.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a  "house- 
cleaning"  on  the  advent  to  power  of  some  hitherto  minority  party. 
Removals  can  take  place,  to  be  sure,  but  only  for  cause.  The  rule  of 
life  employment  is  very  fairly  observed.  Indeed,  one  of  the  most 
important  functions  of  a  minister  is  to  appoint  his  own  political  adher- 
ents to  posts  that  have  automatically  become  vacant,  thus  preserving 
his  influence  and  that  of  his  party  after  both  have  fallen  from  power. 

This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  case  of  education.  The  various 
ministers  in  that  branch  have  policies  which  change  as  rapidly  as  do 
the  ministers.  Next  in  rank  to  them  comes  the  sub-secretary  of 
education,  the  actual  directing  force  of  the  system,  and  he  remains. 
So  too  with  other  important  officials,  such  as  the  sub-secretary  of 
secondary  and  higher  education  and  the  inspector  of  primary  schools. 
The  last  named  official,  for  example,  is  a  virtual  dictator  over  the 
primary  schools  of  the  entire  country.  Under  him  are  some  7,000 
teachers,  whom  in  first  instance  he  appoints  (whenever  there  is  a 
vacancy)  and  whom  he  may  dismiss  for  cause.  It  is  true  that  his  acts 
must  be  approved  by  the  minister,  but  in  practice  they  are. 

From  the  foregoing  one  can  easily  see  why  it  is  that  the  University 
of  Chile  should  hold  such  a  powerful  place  in  the  educational  affairs  of 
the  country.  The  Rector  and  the  university  professors  are  the  only 
individuals  of  educational  prestige  who  are  constantly  before  the  eyes 
of  the  pubhc.  To  be  sure,  many  of  the  officials  in  the  educational 
bureaucracy  are  men  of  great  distinction,  but  the  system  does  not 
necessarily  require  them  so  to  be,  and  their  position  is  such  that  they 
inevitably  prefer  to  do  their  work  quietly,  without  seeking  fame  or 
risking  denunciation.  Thus  it  is  that  the  opinions  of  the  Rector  or  of 
the  Council  of  tjie  University  have  great  weight.  Furthermore,  vast 
powers  have  been  granted  to  the  University,  so  that  on  the  one  hand  it 
possesses  extraordinary  liberty  in  its  internal  government  and  on  the 
other  has  a  very  nearly  dominant  place  over  the  other  schools  below  it. 
It  is  doubtful  if  any  university  in  the  world  exercises  so  wide  an  authority. 

By  law  the  University  is  subordinate  to  the  Minister  of  Justice  and 
Public  Instruction.  In  fact  it  is  virtually  independent.  The  most 
important  governing  body  of  the  University  is  the  Council,  made  up 
of  the  Minister  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction,  the  Rector  of  the 


398  THE   HISPANIC  AMERICAN  HISTORICAL  REVIEW 

University,  the  Secretary  General  of  the  University,  the  five  Deans  of 
the  University,  the  Rector  of  the  Instituto  Nacional,  three  members 
named  by  the  President  of  Chile,  and  two  named  by  the  Cloister  (or 
faculty)  of  the  University — fourteen  in  all.  This  body  is  in  a  sense  the 
legislature  of  the  entire  educational  system  in  Chile  as  well  as  of  the 
University.  The  Minister  might  refuse  to  follow  its  advice,  but  he 
rarely  does,  unless  it  is  in  conflict  with  his  own  educational  polic3^ 
From  the  very  composition  of  the  Council,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the 
Rector  of  the  University  would  in  fact  be  the  dominating  power.  He 
also  has  a  virtually  determining  influence,  in  company  with  the  two 
members  from  the  Cloister,  over  all  administrative  appointments  within 
the  University  and  all  appointments  of  teachers  to  the  liceos.  He  and 
his  two  associates  place  five  names  in  nomination,  from  which  the 
Council  selects  three,  and  the  President  of  the  country  (or  the  Minister 
of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction)  one.  It  is  the  custom  for  the  Rector 
to  indicate  his  choice  by  the  order  in  which  he  lists  his  nominees ;  it  is 
said  that  the  names  after  the  first  often  represent  persons  who  it  is 
known  would  not  accept  the  appointment  if  it  were  proffered.  At  any 
rate  his  candidates  are  almost  invariably  selected.  Indeed,  certainly 
so  far  as  the  learned  and  amiable  gentleman  now  at  the  head  of  the 
University  is  concerned,  the  Rector  may  be  said  to  be  easily  the  most 
important  figure  in  the  national  educational  system,  for,  subject  though 
he  is  to  the  Council,  he  in  fact  has  the  support  of  that  body. 

Within  the  University  itself  the  faculty  has  such  power  as  is  almost 
undreamed  of  in  the  United  States.  The  whole  body  of  the  faculty 
forms  the  Cloister,  to  which  also  belong  certain  distingui^ed  scholars 
who,  though  they  are  not  teachers  in  the  University,  are  elected  by 
the  Cloister  itself  to  membership  therein;  in  their  case  election  to  the 
Cloister  is  equivalent  in  Chile  to  becoming  an  Academician  in  such 
countries  as  France  and  Spain.  In  the  main,  perhaps,  the  meetings 
of  the  Cloister  are  of  the  same  harmless  variety  as  the  typical  faculty 
meetings  in  universities  of  the  United  States,  but  it  has  several  very 
important  functions.  It  elects  the  two  members  of  the  Council  who 
join  with  the  Rector  in  the  making  of  appointments  in  first  instance, 
as  described  above,  and  who  therefore  give  the  faculty  a  voice  in  the 
deliberations  of  the  powerful  Council.  In  like  manner  the  Cloister 
elects  the  Secretary  General  of  the  University,  who  also  sits  with 
the  Council.  Of  still  more  import,  it  elects  the  Rector  of  the  Uni- 
versity himself!  Still  further,  the  Rector  as  such  is  the  only  member 
of  the  faculty  who  does  not  hold  a  life  appointment.    His  term  of 


NOTES   AND   COMMENT  399 

office  runs  for  but  four  years.  It  has  been  the  custom,  however,  to 
reelect  the  Rector.  Senor  Amunategui  is  now  in  his  third  term,  and  is 
universally  popular. 

In  yet  other  ways,  though  in  many  of  them  apart  from  the  Cloister, 
the  members  of  the  faculty  have  a  wide-reaching  authority.  The 
University  controls  secondary  education  in  that  the  teachers  of  liceos 
must  have  a  "title",  or  degree,  authorizing  them  to  teach,  and  this 
can  be  obtained  only  from  the  University  of  Chile.  But  the  student 
cannot  possibly  receive  his  title  unless  first  he  wins  the  approbation  of 
his  individual  professors.  In  like  manner  the  University  and  the 
members  of  the  faculty  have  vast  power  over  the  medical  profession, 
for  here,  too,  the  degree  of  the  University  is  a  license  to  practice  and 
is  the  only  license  that  is  given.  Thus  the  faculty  of  the  University 
has  a  function  in  Chile  which  in  the  United  States  is  reserved  by 
the  government  to  itself.  The  University  alone  can  grant  titles  in 
various  other  professions — engineering,  for  example — but  their  acqui- 
sition is  not  required,  wherefore  one  need  not  attend  the  University 
of  Chile  to  study  these  branches.  Finally,  the  faculty,  this  time  in 
the  meetings  of  the  Cloister,  decides  on  appointments  to  its  own  body 
whenever  any  vacancy  in  the  teaching  staff  occurs.  Whatever  the  law 
on  the  point  may  be,  it  is  the  fact  that  these  elections  are  determining. 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  too,  that  the  University  of  Chile  occupies  a 
unique  place  among  the  higher  institutions  of  learning.  A  little  farther 
up  the  Alameda  de  Delicias,  the  broad  avenue  upon  which  the  Uni- 
versity faces,  is  the  Catholic  University  of  Chile,  which  duplicates 
many  of  the  courses  in  the  national  university.  Nevertheless,  it  may 
not  grant  "titles",  wherefore  it  necessarily  suffers  by  comparison 
with  the  University  of  Chile.  A  private  university  has  recently  been 
established  at  Concepcion  in  southern  Chile,  but  this  has  yet  to  win 
a  share  in  the  extraordinary  power  now  possessed  by  the  University 
of  Chile  alone. 

Through  the  Council  the  University  of  Chile  has  very  great  power 
over  primary  education,  but  less,  however,  than  over  the  secondary 
schools.  Aspirants  for  the  title  of  primary  school  teacher  do  not  enter 
the  University,  but  go  instead  to  some  one  of  the  various  normal 
schools.  Naturally,  the  amount  of  preparation  required  of  a  primary 
school  teacher  is  less  by  several  years  than  for  the  teachers  in  secondary 
education.  To  a  certain  extent  the  power  of  the  normal  schools  in 
primary  education  resembles  that  of  the  University  in  the  case  of  the 
liceos,  since  they  have  the  sole  power  to  grant  or  withhold  titles.    There 


400  THE   HISPANIC   AMERICAN   HISTORICAL   REVIEW 

are  a  number  of  normal  schools,  however,  instead  of  one  central  insti- 
tution, and  this  makes  it  easier  for  the  government  inspector  of  pri- 
mary schools  to  wield  a  power  of  which  the  ofl&cial  in  charge  of  uni- 
versity and  secondary  education  would  never  dream. 

The  University  seal  has  five  symbols  to  represent  the  different 
colleges  of  which  it  is  composed.  These  are  Theology,  Law,  Medicine, 
Engineering,  and  Philosophy  and  the  Humanities.  One  of  these, 
that  of  Theology,  is  virtually  non-existent.  In  1835  a  theological 
seminary  was  established  apart  from  the  Institute  Nacional,  which  at 
that  time  served  as  the  state  university.  If  theological  students  seek 
a  degree  in  theology,  they  must  obtain  it  from  the  University.  Since, 
however,  the  church  makes  priests,  and  not  the  state,  the  students  of 
the  seminary  do  not  in  fact  present  themselves  at  the  University. 
Curiously  enough,  nevertheless,  one  of  the  five  Deans  of  the  University 
represents  Theology — a  post  which  is  purely  and  simply  an  historical 
survival. 

Really  there  are  several  other  minor  schools,  or  colleges,  within  the 
University,  such  as  Pharmacy,  Dentistry,  Architecture,  Fine  Arts,  and 
Physical  Education.  All  of  the  schools  of  the  University  are  rigor- 
ously professional  and  more  or  less  mutually  exclusive.  A  student 
who  has  failed  in  one  of  them  cannot  transfer  credits  to  another,  but 
must  start  in  with  the  first  year  again,  if  he  is  still  desirous  of  pursuing 
an  education  in  the  University.  There  will  be  no  courses  that  he  can 
transfer,  for  each  college  has  its  own  curriculum  complete.  Thus, 
chemistry  will  be  taught  in  the  colleges  of  Medicine,  Engineering,  and 
Pedagogy,  and  differently  in  each;  so  too  with  other  courses. 

The  same  exclusive  principle  turns  up  within  each  college.  Thus  in 
the  Institute  Pedag6gico  (Pedagogical  Institute,  of  which,  more,  pres- 
ently) one  may  choose  from  among  the  various  fields,  such  as  Spanish, 
French,  English,  German,  History  and  Geography,  Mathematics, 
Physics  and  Chemistry,  each  representing  a  subject  that  is  taught  in 
the  secondary  schools.  If  one  chooses  History  and  Geography,  he 
will  assuredly  have  no  time  for  any  of  the  others,  and  similarly  if  he 
selects  another  field.  All,  indeed,  are  required  to  attend  courses  in 
pedagogy  proper  and  to  serve  as  practice  teachers  in  the  liceo  which 
adjoins  the  Institute  Pedag6gico.  Another  curious  factor  is  that 
each  course  runs  through  the  entire  length  of  a  university  student's 
career.  In  the  History  of  America,  for  example,  the  professor  reaches 
Magellan  in  the  first  year,  deals  with  the  conquest  in  the  second,  takes 
up  colonial  institutions  in  the  third,  and  treats  of  the  wars  of  inde- 


NOTES  AND   COMMENT  401 

pendence  and  the  republican  era  in  the  fourth.  It  may  be  said  further 
that  the  subjects  taught  in  the  Institute  Pedagogic©  are  precisely  the 
same  as  those  of  the  liceos  and  that  the  teachers  are  licensed  to  give 
instruction  only  in  the  subject  which  they  have  studied  in  the  Uni- 
versity. In  rare  instances  a  student  is  able  to  pass  in  more  than  one 
field,  in  which  case  he  receives  a  title  in  each.  From  the  above  it  will 
appear  that  the  Uceo  is  the  one  school  which  makes  a  pretense  at  breadth 
of  education. 

Whatever  one  may  think  of  the  system  as  a  whole,  there  is  much  to 
be  said  in  commendation  of  the  methods  within  courses.  Classes  are 
taught  with  an  emphasis  on  sources  and  criticism  that  one  rarely  finds, 
short  of  the  graduate  seminar,  in  the  United  States.  The  above 
mentioned  class  in  the  History  of  America,  taught  at  present  by  Luis 
Puga,  a  thorough-going  scholar,  may  be  taken  for  purposes  of  illustra- 
tion. A  single  volume  work  by  the  great  Chilean  historian  Barros 
Arana  is  used  as  a  text.  This  is  not  paralleled  or  duplicated  at  all  by 
Professor  Puga.  He  devotes  his  time  to  a  discussion  of  the  sources 
and  to  lectures  on  disputed  points,  such  for  example  as  the  birthplace 
of  Columbus.  Twice  a  year  the  students  are  required  to  write  papers 
on  assigned  topics.  These  papers,  in  the  opinion  of  the  present  writer, 
are  superior  to  the  average  term  paper  of  students  in  our  own  uni- 
versities. More  attention  is  paid  in  them  to  sources  and  proof,  with 
an  apparent  use  of  criticism,  and  less  weight  is  given  to  mere  accumu- 
lation of  incident.  The  standards  of  the  teacher  are  high,  to  the  point 
of  severity.     Last  year,  in  a  class  of  twenty,  only  ten  passed. 

The  Chilean  professors  make  use  of  the  recitation,  but  not  of  the 
periodical  examination.  The  decision  as  to  whether  a  student  passes 
or  fails  is  left  to  a  veritable  inquisition  (resembling  our  doctoral  exami- 
nation) at  the  end  of  the  year.  In  this  examination  the  other  pro- 
fessors of  the  particular  college  also  take  part.  It  may  be  written  or 
oral  or  both,  but  usually  it  is  oral. 

Of  the  four  leading  colleges,  that  of  Law  unquestionably  has  the 
poorest  reputation.  It  is  said  to  be  the  easiest  of  all,  though  the 
course  lasts  five  years  and  few  are  able  to  finish.  If  the  reports  one 
hears  are  true,  the  purely  legal  courses  are  least  thorough,  while  those 
in  international  law.  economics,  political  science,  and  other  subjects 
which  are  annexed  to  the  curriculum  of  this  college  have  a  somewhat 
better  standing.  It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  many  of  the  students  in 
this  college  add  courses  in  some  other  field,  especially  among  those  of 
the  Instituto  Pedagogico — or,  rather,  many  in  the  latter  also  take  law, 


402  THE   HISPANIC  AMERICAN  HISTORICAL  REVIEW 

in  order  to  procure  a  title  in  another  profession,  whereby  they  may 
supplement  their  scanty  emolument  as  teachers.  This  very  largely 
accounts  for  the  heavy  registration  in  the  college  of  Law.  At  the 
present  time  there  are  about  700  enrolled.  Less  than  ten  per  cent 
remain  through  the  five  years  and  win  the  title. 

The  college  of  Medicine  has  some  600  students  of  whom  about 
twenty  a  year  receive  the  title  of  doctor.  The  course  lasts  six  years, 
and  is  expensive  as  well  as  difficult,  wherefore  many  drop  out  of  their 
own  accord.  The  same  thing  may  be  said  of  the  college  of  Engineer- 
ing, which,  however,  does  not  at  present  bear  a  particularly  good  repu- 
tation. There  are  about  300  students  in  this  college.  The  course  is 
six  years  long. 

Philosophy  and  the  Humanities  are  represented  by  the  Institute 
Pedagogico,  which  is  the  nearest  approach  that  the  Chileans  have  to  a 
College  of  Letters  and  Science  in  our  sense  of  the  term.  It  has  by  far 
the  highest  reputation  of  the  various  colleges  of  the  University.  Ac- 
cording to  one  writer,  "this  establishment  is  a  model  school,  a  center 
of  lofty  culture  which  honors  the  country.  The  teachers  who  are 
prepared  there  are  competent  and  hard-working,  and  they  acquire  an 
arsenal  of  information."  Of  the  700  enrolled  in  this  college  some  400 
are  girls. 

Graduate  work  is  no  part  of  the  program  of  the  University  of  Chile. 
None  of  the  higher  degrees  are  awarded;  the  title  "Doctor"  is  applied 
only  to  physicians. 

It  must  be  apparent  that  the  source  of  inspiration  for  Chilean  educa- 
tion has  been  Germany.  Chilean  students  who  have  gone  to  Europe 
for  graduate  study  have  usually  attended  German  universities,  and 
Germans  have  been  procured  for  some  of  the  most  important  educa- 
tional posts  in  Chile;  indeed,  men  of  other  nationality  could  not  be 
persuaded  to  leave  their  country  for  the  small  salaries  offered,  but  the 
German  left  the  homeland  easily,  and  was  willing  to  remain  in  Chile 
at  a  modest  wage.  Having  no  longstanding  educational  tradition  such 
as  existed  in  the  United  States,  the  Chileans  quite  naturally  followed 
the  system  with  which  they  were  best  acquainted,  that  of  Germany. 

That  Chile  is  still  in  its  educational  infancy  can  be  well  appreciated 
when  it  is  understood  that  in  a  population  of  some  4,000,000,  about 
half — sixty  per  cent  according  to  some  accounts — can  neither  read  nor 
write,  despite  the  fact  that  for  a  generation  the  law  has  provided  that 
education  should  be  free  and  obligatory.  One  must  not  forget,  how- 
ever, that  the  advar.ces  of  recent  years  have  been  at  a  most  gratifying 


NOTES  AND  COMMENT  403 

rate,  and  have  been  remarkable  as  concerns  the  education  of  women. 
In  1918,  in  some  3,000  primary  schools  there  were  174,000  girls  and 
162,000  boys.  Of  the  ninety  liceos,  some  fifty  were  for  girls.  The  girls 
numbered  13,000  and  the  boys  17,000.  In  various  special  schools — 
normal  schools,  industrial  schools,  etc. — there  were  more  than  7,300 
girls  and  less  than  7,000  boys.  In  the  University  the  exact  figures 
were  941  young  women  and  3,287  men.  Thirty  years  ago  these  figures 
would  have  been  astounding.  At  the  present  rate  of  progress  the 
Chileans  may  look  ahead  with  assurance  to  the  attainment  of  their 
educational  aspirations  in  the  not  very  distant  future. 

Charles  E.  Chapman, 
United  States  Exchange  Professor  to  Chile. 


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